Makalah Speech Act

INTRODUCTION

A.    Background

Linguistic is the study of language, Linguistics is concerned with identifying the meaningful elements of specific languages, Linguistics also deals with the meanings expressed by modulations of a speaker’s voice and the processes by which hearers and readers relate new information to the information they already have. There are some branches of it such as morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, etc. from all of the branches, there is only one branch that will be explained by group 11.

Semantics is the systematic study of meaning, and linguistic semantics is the study of how languages organize and express meanings. Three disciplines are concerned with the systematic study of ‘meaning’ in itself: psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Their particular interests and approaches are different, yet each borrows from and contributes to the others.  If it is hard to say what meaning is, it is fairly easy to show what knowledge speakers have about meanings in their language and therefore what things must be included in an account of semantics (Bierwisch 1970:167–75; Dillon 1977:1–6).

The study of meaning can be undertaken in various ways. Linguistic semantics is an attempt to explicate the knowledge of any speaker of a language which allows that speaker to communicate facts, feelings, intentions and products of the imagination to other speakers and to understand what they communicate to him or her. Semantics is mainly concerned with a speaker’s competence to use the language system in producing meaningful utterances and processing (comprehending) utterances produced by others.

In this term paper, we want to point out the basic issues of Speech Act Theory. After giving a general explanation of what Speech Act and Speech Act Theory is and trying to mention and explain three kinds the meaning of speech acts, we will give an example of these kinds. Afterwards, we will present the classification of speech acts. Then explain and give it example. Finally, we will move on the more explanation about illocutionary act and Direct and Indirect Speech Acts and show two common examples.

B.     Formulation of Problem

1.      What is the definition of Speech Act?

2.      What is the definition of Locutionary, Illocutionary, Perlocutionary ?

3.      What kinds of Illocutionary?

4.      What are the Illocutionary functions?

C.    Purpose

The reasons of us to make this paper are:

-          Giving the readers explanation about the speech act theory.

-          Knowing the types of speech act

-          Giving a descibes of Illocutionary functions.

Discussion

A.    Definition of Speech Act

A speech act is a minimal functional unit in human communication, just as a word (refusal) is the smallest free form found in language and a morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning (-al in refuse-al makes it a noun), the basic unit of communication is a speech act (the speech of refusal).

A speech act theory is a theory where the effect of an utterance is analyzed in relationship to the speaker and listener’s behavior.

B.     The Meaning of Speech Act

According to Austin's theory (1962), what we say has three kinds of meaning:

1.      Locutionary meaning

The literal meaning of what is said (communicative act)

It's hot in here.

2.      Illocutionary meaning

The social function of what is said (speaker intention)      

'It's hot in here'   could be:

- An indirect request for someone to open the window.

- An indirect refusal to close the window because someone is cold.

- A complaint implying that someone should know better than to keep the windows   closed (expressed emphatically).

3.      Perlocutionary meaning

The effect of what is said.

         'It's hot in here' could result in someone opening the windows.

C.     The Classification of Speech Acts

Searle concentrated on Illocutionary Acts and his main aim was to categorize them as detailed as possible. He invented three major criteria to classify Illocutionary Acts:

1.  The first criterion is the Illocutionary Point, which is the main purpose of a Speech Act.

While a description has the function to represent something, a promise has the role of obligating the speaker to some action to be done in the future.

2. The Direction of Fit describes the intersection between the words and the world. Are the words describing some items of the world, this is called ‛word to world direction’. The other way round, the world is supposed to follow the words, for example in a promise or an order. According to Searle, the Direction of Fit is always a consequence of the Illocutionary Point.

3. The circumstances of a certain utterance are also a significant criterion.

Here, the psychological state of the speaker is relevant. Does he believe that his words are true? This is what Searle calls Sincerity Conditions.

D.    The types of Speech Acts

Searle claims that he has invented a taxonomy that reflects what happens when a speech act is performed sufficiently. He has set up the following five categories of Illocutionary Speech Acts. To find out, what category a single utterance belongs to, we can form an indirect sentence and look at the verb (Speech Act Verb) that is used.

1.      Assertive

Speaker asserts a proposition to be true using verbs such as affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report.

Example: “The sun is shining”

Amy affirms that the sun is shining.

2.      Directives

Speaker tries to make the hearer do something, ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request.

Example: “Could you pass me the salt, please?”

Amy asks Peter to pass her the salt.

3.      Commisived

Speaker commits themselves to a future course of action, promise, pledge, swear, vow, guarantee.

Example: “I will come to your party”

                  Amy promises Peter to come to his party.

4.      Declaratives

Speech Acts that create a change in reality.

Example: “Hereby the meeting is closed”

Amy declares the meeting as closed.

Conclusion

•         There are three meaning of speech acts. They are locutionary meaning, illocutionary meaning and perlocutionary meaning.

•         The categories of speech acts are representatives or assertive, directives, commissives, expressives and declaratives.

•         The concept of an illocutionary act is central to the concept of a speech act.

•         In everyday communication, a variety of different Speech Acts are used. Without being linguists, usually people are able understand what the speaker wants to say.

Reference

Searle, J. (1975). Indirect speech acts. In P. Cole and J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics,vol. 3: Speech Acts (pp. 59–82). New York. 

Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.

Grice, H.P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In A. Jaworski, & N. Coupland (Eds.), The discourse reader (pp. 76-87). New York: Routledge.